Heritage Language Maintenance and Diaspora Identity among Second-Generation Pakistani Migrants in the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain: A Mixed-Methods Investigation

Abstract

Heritage language maintenance (HLM) plays a central role in shaping cultural continuity, intergenerational communication, and identity formation within migrant communities. However, the extent to which heritage language proficiency influences diaspora identity varies across national contexts with differing linguistic, educational, and integration policies. This study investigates patterns of heritage language maintenance and their relationship to diaspora identity among second-generation Pakistani migrants residing in the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain. The research is informed by Fishman's (1991) Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS), Cummins' (2001) heritage language theory, and Bhabha's (1994) concept of the Third Space, which conceptualizes identity as a dynamic process of cultural negotiation. Employing a mixed-methods design, the study involved 120 second-generation Pakistani migrants aged 18–35 years. Data collection combined standardized assessments of Urdu and Punjabi heritage language proficiency, the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), and semi-structured interviews exploring participants' linguistic experiences, family relationships, and cultural affiliations. Quantitative analysis revealed significant cross-national differences in heritage language maintenance, with participants in the United Kingdom demonstrating the highest levels of Urdu and Punjabi proficiency, followed by those in Germany and Spain. Heritage language proficiency showed a significant positive correlation with ethnic identity strength (r = .57), while regular heritage language use within the family was strongly associated with identity security (r = .62). Qualitative findings further demonstrated that heritage language functioned as a vital resource for maintaining intergenerational communication, strengthening family cohesion, fostering community participation, and negotiating transnational identities across multiple cultural settings. Participants frequently described bilingualism as enabling them to navigate both heritage and host societies while preserving a sense of cultural continuity. Conversely, reduced heritage language competence was often associated with feelings of cultural disconnection and diminished engagement with extended family networks. The study contributes to heritage language research, diaspora identity theory, and migration studies by demonstrating the close relationship between language maintenance and identity development. The findings also offer important implications for language policy, community-based heritage language education, and initiatives supporting multilingualism and cultural inclusion within increasingly diverse European societies.